Rare Earth Elements Material File
The Netherlands Materials Observatory (NMO) publishes material files (in Dutch) that provide insight into the availability, applications and strategic relevance of specific materials. This report focuses on rare earth elements and brings together up-to-date, carefully analysed information relevant to government policy-making and decision-making in industry.
Last updated: September 2025
Applications
The fifteen rare earth elements (REEs) have a wide variety of applications. The most important of these are two types of permanent magnets (Nd-type and Sm-type, in which dysprosium (Dy), terbium (Tb) and samarium (Sm) may be present in small quantities to enhance functionality), lighting (lutetium, europium), catalysis (lanthanum, cerium), polishing powder (cerium) and alloys (gadolinium).
Export restrictions
On 4 April 2025, China made export licences mandatory for seven (heavy) rare earth elements, including terbium (Tb) and dysprosium (Dy), which are important for heat-resistant permanent magnets. By July 2025, export volumes had returned to the levels seen at the start of 2025.
Price trends
In the period following the Chinese export controls in April 2025, the prices of dysprosium (Dy) and terbium (Tb) tripled within a month, with Dy reaching a price of around $850/kg and Tb $3,000/kg.
Production and processing
| Extraction | Between 2018 and 2023, rare-earth production doubled to a volume of 385 kt REO (‘Rare Earth Oxides equivalent’). In 2023, China (66%), Myanmar (16%), the US (11%) and Australia (5%) were the largest producers. New production is on the horizon, but will primarily bring Light Rare Earth Elements (LREE), such as neodymium (Nd) and praseodymium (Pr), to the market. |
|---|---|
| Exploration | Exploration budgets (outside China) have been rising since 2017 and are now estimated at 130 MEUR. The largest investments are being made in Australia. |
| Reserves | The largest reserves are found in China (48%), Brazil (23%), India (8%) and Australia (6%). |
| Processing | 88% of processing takes place in China; for heavy rare-earth elements, such as terbium (Tb) and dysprosium (Dy), this is 98%. Neodymium (Nd) and praseodymium (Pr) are also processed in Malaysia (8%), the United States and Vietnam. |
| Recycling | No rare earth elements are currently being recycled, but Carester in France is set to begin production (from end-of-life material) in 2026. Various Horizon Europe projects are investigating REE recycling, and a number of CRMA Strategic Projects have also been awarded to focus on the recycling of permanent magnets. |
The Netherlands’ role in trade and use
Dutch imports and exports
The Netherlands is a net importer of rare-earth metals (HS280530) and permanent magnets (HS850511), accounting for 0.4% and 1% respectively of world trade.
Origin of Dutch imports
Imports of rare-earth metals come mainly from China (69%), followed by Thailand (23%), Turkey (17%) and Canada (10%). Permanent magnets come mainly from China (65%) and Germany (14%).
Applications in The Netherlands
The application is mainly found in the high-tech sector (equipment manufacturing), in electric motors and in mechatronics (in relation to magnetic levitation).
Aanvragen en voorwaarden
This material file is only in Dutch and available exclusively on request to businesses and government bodies. The NMO makes the information in this file available, without obligation, to organisations active in the industry for which the content is relevant.
Organisations interested in one or more material files can submit a request via the TNO Repository. A member of the NMO team will then contact you to discuss the request in further detail.